{
  "version": "23.0.0",
  "generated": "2026-07-31",
  "methodNote": "V23 separates excavation context, published stratigraphy, radiocarbon measurement, calibrated/model-derived ranges, provenance history, object reading, historical inference, and biblical correlation. Simplified sequences are navigation aids and never replace excavation reports.",
  "profiles": [
    {
      "id": "rc-method-intcal20",
      "siteId": "method",
      "title": "Calibration with IntCal20",
      "kind": "method",
      "sample": "Northern Hemisphere terrestrial samples",
      "context": "Calibration curve",
      "laboratory": "Multiple international datasets",
      "uncalibrated": "Radiocarbon ages require calibration",
      "calendarRange": "Probability distributions in calendar years",
      "model": "IntCal20",
      "result": "Converts radiocarbon measurements into calendar-age probability distributions.",
      "limits": "A calibrated range is not a single exact date; curve plateaus can produce broad or multimodal ranges.",
      "referenceIds": [
        "v23-intcal20"
      ],
      "references": [
        {
          "id": "v23-intcal20",
          "title": "The IntCal20 Northern Hemisphere Radiocarbon Age Calibration Curve (0–55 cal kBP)",
          "url": "https://doi.org/10.1017/RDC.2020.41"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "rc-method-oxcal",
      "siteId": "method",
      "title": "Bayesian chronological modeling",
      "kind": "method",
      "sample": "Published archaeological samples plus stratigraphic information",
      "context": "Sequence, phase, boundary, and outlier models",
      "laboratory": "Software-independent measurements modeled in OxCal",
      "uncalibrated": "Individual laboratory determinations",
      "calendarRange": "Posterior ranges after explicit model assumptions",
      "model": "OxCal / Bayesian model",
      "result": "Combines absolute measurements with independently justified relative sequence information.",
      "limits": "A model can be precise but wrong if sample association or stratigraphic assumptions are wrong.",
      "referenceIds": [
        "v23-oxcal"
      ],
      "references": [
        {
          "id": "v23-oxcal",
          "title": "OxCal radiocarbon calibration and chronological analysis",
          "url": "https://c14.arch.ox.ac.uk/oxcal.html"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "rc-qeiyafa-olive-pits",
      "siteId": "khirbet-qeiyafa",
      "title": "Khirbet Qeiyafa destruction-layer olive pits",
      "kind": "site project",
      "sample": "Seventeen short-lived burnt olive-pit samples reported from a jar in the destruction layer",
      "context": "Fortified Iron Age city destruction/abandonment horizon",
      "laboratory": "Published radiocarbon project",
      "uncalibrated": "Multiple determinations; inspect publication for laboratory numbers",
      "calendarRange": "Late eleventh to early tenth century BCE modeling",
      "model": "Site sample set",
      "result": "Supports a short occupation around the Iron I–IIA transition.",
      "limits": "The samples constrain occupation chronology but do not by themselves establish ethnicity, kingdom, or a named biblical ruler.",
      "referenceIds": [
        "cambridge-qeiyafa-second",
        "cambridge-qeiyafa-state"
      ],
      "references": [
        {
          "id": "cambridge-qeiyafa-second",
          "title": "King David's City at Khirbet Qeiyafa: Results of the Second Radiocarbon Dating Project",
          "url": "https://doi.org/10.1017/RDC.2015.2"
        },
        {
          "id": "cambridge-qeiyafa-state",
          "title": "State Formation in Judah and Radiometric Dates at Khirbet Qeiyafa",
          "url": "https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033822200047147"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "rc-qeiyafa-regional",
      "siteId": "khirbet-qeiyafa",
      "title": "Khirbet Qeiyafa regional Bayesian model",
      "kind": "interpretive model",
      "sample": "Qeiyafa dates evaluated within a regional ceramic and stratigraphic sequence",
      "context": "Shephelah Iron I–IIA transition",
      "laboratory": "Published methodological model",
      "uncalibrated": "Reuses published determinations",
      "calendarRange": "Model-dependent regional phase ranges",
      "model": "Bayesian regional sequence",
      "result": "Shows how the same measurements can be interpreted differently when embedded in a regional chronology.",
      "limits": "The model’s conclusions depend on ceramic sequencing, site association, and prior assumptions.",
      "referenceIds": [
        "cambridge-qeiyafa-bayesian"
      ],
      "references": [
        {
          "id": "cambridge-qeiyafa-bayesian",
          "title": "Radiocarbon Dating Khirbet Qeiyafa and the Iron I–IIA Phases in the Shephelah",
          "url": "https://doi.org/10.2458/azu_rc.57.18336"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "rc-lachish-fortifications",
      "siteId": "lachish",
      "title": "Lachish early fortification radiocarbon project",
      "kind": "site project",
      "sample": "Short-lived samples associated with early Iron Age fortification contexts",
      "context": "Level V / early Iron IIA state-formation debate",
      "laboratory": "Published radiocarbon project",
      "uncalibrated": "Multiple determinations; inspect publication tables",
      "calendarRange": "Early Iron IIA probability ranges",
      "model": "Radiometric and stratigraphic synthesis",
      "result": "Tests the date of early Judahite fortifications at Lachish.",
      "limits": "The dates do not automatically identify a builder, king, or exact administrative system.",
      "referenceIds": [
        "cambridge-lachish-fortifications"
      ],
      "references": [
        {
          "id": "cambridge-lachish-fortifications",
          "title": "Lachish Fortifications and State Formation in Judah",
          "url": "https://doi.org/10.1017/RDC.2019.5"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "rc-hazor-destruction",
      "siteId": "hazor",
      "title": "Hazor Late Bronze destruction chronology",
      "kind": "site project",
      "sample": "Short-lived materials from Late Bronze destruction contexts",
      "context": "Upper-city administrative palace destruction",
      "laboratory": "Published radiocarbon and archaeological synthesis",
      "uncalibrated": "See publication dataset",
      "calendarRange": "Late Bronze Age probability ranges",
      "model": "Context-sensitive destruction model",
      "result": "Constrains the final Late Bronze destruction within the thirteenth-century debate.",
      "limits": "Dating a destruction does not identify its agent; proposed biblical, internal, or regional causes remain separate arguments.",
      "referenceIds": [
        "bechar-hazor-2021"
      ],
      "references": [
        {
          "id": "bechar-hazor-2021",
          "title": "The Destruction of Late Bronze Age Hazor",
          "url": "https://doi.org/10.1553/AEUNDL31S45"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "rc-tel-eton-old-house",
      "siteId": "tel-eton",
      "title": "Tel ‘Eton old-house effect case",
      "kind": "building biography",
      "sample": "Foundation-deposit and floor-makeup samples beneath a long-used elite residence",
      "context": "Construction versus final-use chronology",
      "laboratory": "Published radiocarbon project",
      "uncalibrated": "Multiple determinations from construction-related contexts",
      "calendarRange": "Supports construction beginning in the tenth century BCE",
      "model": "Building-biography model",
      "result": "Demonstrates how a building can be founded earlier than the datable debris on its final floors.",
      "limits": "The result concerns one site and building; it should not be generalized automatically to every monument or kingdom.",
      "referenceIds": [
        "cambridge-tel-eton"
      ],
      "references": [
        {
          "id": "cambridge-tel-eton",
          "title": "The Governor’s Residency at Tel ‘Eton and the United Monarchy",
          "url": "https://doi.org/10.1017/RDC.2018.10"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "rc-atar-haroa",
      "siteId": "atar-haroa",
      "title": "Atar Haroa Iron IIA radiocarbon sequence",
      "kind": "regional project",
      "sample": "Short-lived samples from a Negev Highlands settlement",
      "context": "Iron IIA settlement system",
      "laboratory": "Published radiocarbon project",
      "uncalibrated": "See publication dataset",
      "calendarRange": "Primarily ninth century BCE, with possible late tenth-century foundation",
      "model": "Site sequence",
      "result": "Constrains activity in the early Iron IIA Negev settlement system.",
      "limits": "The site dates do not independently establish the political sponsor of the settlement system.",
      "referenceIds": [
        "cambridge-atar-haroa"
      ],
      "references": [
        {
          "id": "cambridge-atar-haroa",
          "title": "Radiocarbon Results from the Iron IIA Site of Atar Haroa in the Negev Highlands",
          "url": "https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033822200056472"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "rc-azekah-lba",
      "siteId": "azekah",
      "title": "Tel Azekah Late Bronze radiocarbon project",
      "kind": "site project",
      "sample": "Short-lived samples from Late Bronze strata",
      "context": "Shephelah Late Bronze occupational sequence",
      "laboratory": "Published preliminary radiocarbon project",
      "uncalibrated": "See publication dataset",
      "calendarRange": "Published Late Bronze phase ranges",
      "model": "Stratified site sequence",
      "result": "Tests the absolute chronology of Late Bronze strata in the Shephelah.",
      "limits": "Preliminary models should be revised when larger sample sets and final excavation publications appear.",
      "referenceIds": [
        "cambridge-azekah-lba"
      ],
      "references": [
        {
          "id": "cambridge-azekah-lba",
          "title": "Preliminary Radiocarbon Results for Late Bronze Age Strata at Tel Azekah and Their Implications",
          "url": "https://doi.org/10.1017/RDC.2018.80"
        }
      ]
    }
  ],
  "bibliography": [
    {
      "id": "v23-intcal20",
      "title": "The IntCal20 Northern Hemisphere Radiocarbon Age Calibration Curve (0–55 cal kBP)",
      "authors": "Reimer et al.",
      "year": 2020,
      "kind": "calibration standard",
      "url": "https://doi.org/10.1017/RDC.2020.41",
      "note": "Northern Hemisphere atmospheric calibration curve; calibration is not the same as a direct calendar measurement."
    },
    {
      "id": "v23-oxcal",
      "title": "OxCal radiocarbon calibration and chronological analysis",
      "authors": "Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "method documentation",
      "url": "https://c14.arch.ox.ac.uk/oxcal.html",
      "note": "Software and documentation for calibration and archaeological chronological modeling."
    },
    {
      "id": "cambridge-qeiyafa-state",
      "title": "State Formation in Judah: Biblical Tradition, Modern Historical Theories and Radiometric Dates at Khirbet Qeiyafa",
      "authors": "Garfinkel et al.",
      "year": 2012,
      "kind": "peer-reviewed radiocarbon study",
      "url": "https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033822200047147"
    },
    {
      "id": "cambridge-qeiyafa-second",
      "title": "King David's City at Khirbet Qeiyafa: Results of the Second Radiocarbon Dating Project",
      "authors": "Garfinkel et al.",
      "year": 2015,
      "kind": "peer-reviewed radiocarbon study",
      "url": "https://doi.org/10.1017/RDC.2015.2"
    },
    {
      "id": "cambridge-qeiyafa-bayesian",
      "title": "Radiocarbon Dating Khirbet Qeiyafa and the Iron I–IIA Phases in the Shephelah: Methodological Comments and a Bayesian Model",
      "authors": "Finkelstein and Piasetzky",
      "year": 2015,
      "kind": "peer-reviewed methodological response",
      "url": "https://doi.org/10.2458/azu_rc.57.18336"
    },
    {
      "id": "cambridge-lachish-fortifications",
      "title": "Lachish Fortifications and State Formation in the Biblical Kingdom of Judah in Light of Radiometric Datings",
      "authors": "Garfinkel et al.",
      "year": 2019,
      "kind": "peer-reviewed radiocarbon study",
      "url": "https://doi.org/10.1017/RDC.2019.5"
    },
    {
      "id": "bechar-hazor-2021",
      "title": "The Destruction of Late Bronze Age Hazor",
      "authors": "Bechar et al.",
      "year": 2021,
      "kind": "peer-reviewed archaeological study",
      "url": "https://doi.org/10.1553/AEUNDL31S45"
    },
    {
      "id": "cambridge-tel-eton",
      "title": "The Governor's Residency at Tel ‘Eton, the United Monarchy, and the Impact of the Old-House Effect",
      "authors": "Faust and Sapir",
      "year": 2018,
      "kind": "peer-reviewed radiocarbon study",
      "url": "https://doi.org/10.1017/RDC.2018.10"
    },
    {
      "id": "cambridge-atar-haroa",
      "title": "Radiocarbon Results from the Iron IIA Site of Atar Haroa in the Negev Highlands",
      "authors": "Boaretto et al.",
      "year": 2010,
      "kind": "peer-reviewed radiocarbon study",
      "url": "https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033822200056472"
    },
    {
      "id": "cambridge-azekah-lba",
      "title": "Preliminary Radiocarbon Results for Late Bronze Age Strata at Tel Azekah and Their Implications",
      "authors": "Webster et al.",
      "year": 2018,
      "kind": "peer-reviewed radiocarbon study",
      "url": "https://doi.org/10.1017/RDC.2018.80"
    },
    {
      "id": "v23-arad-final-publication",
      "title": "The Fortress Mound at Tel Arad: Final Publication Project",
      "authors": "White-Levy Program / Harvard Semitic Museum",
      "year": 2026,
      "kind": "institutional project record",
      "url": "https://whitelevy.fas.harvard.edu/fortress-mound-tel-arad-excavated-yohanan-aharoni-1962-1967"
    },
    {
      "id": "v23-megiddo-gates",
      "title": "Tel Megiddo 2018: Stratigraphic Observations on the Iron Age Gates",
      "authors": "Israel Antiquities Authority excavation report",
      "year": 2021,
      "kind": "official excavation report",
      "url": "https://hadashot.iaa.org.il/Report_Detail_Eng.aspx?id=25996&mag_id=133"
    },
    {
      "id": "nigro-jericho-2023",
      "title": "Tell es-Sultan/Jericho in the Late Bronze Age: An Overall Reconstruction",
      "authors": "Lorenzo Nigro",
      "year": 2023,
      "kind": "academic site synthesis",
      "url": "https://hdl.handle.net/11573/1700491"
    },
    {
      "id": "v23-qumran-loc",
      "title": "The Qumran Community: Artifacts from the Qumran Site",
      "authors": "Library of Congress",
      "year": 1993,
      "kind": "institutional exhibition record",
      "url": "https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/scrolls/art2.html"
    }
  ]
}